Southeast Asia in general: Millions of years ago, the climate of the Southeast Asian region remained relatively stable, even if the rest of the world went through cooling and warming periods. The main reason that Southeast Asia has a stable climate was because the region is on the equator, and the climate on the equator is quite consistent. The surrounding oceans provide plenty of moisture in the form of rain, the region was able to have consistent forests over very long periods of time13. Almost the whole of Southeast Asia was covered by forest 8000 years ago, while today only about half the land area is covered by forest and most of the countries in the region have experienced rapid declines in forest area14.
Below we outline the history of tropical forests in four countries: Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand:
Indonesia: It is estimated that 10% of world’s tropical rainforests are in Indonesia, and some people consider the region to be one of the most biologically significant areas of the world15. Indonesia’s geographical location and structure allows for a mosaic of natural habitats, and many species are endemic - examples include tiger, cloud leopard, orangutan, Sumatra rhinos, etc. Dr. Kartawinata of the National Biological Institute claims that no more than 50% of Indonesia's flora is known to science. However, due to logging, mining, agricultural expansion, and population growth, it is estimated that 1 million hectare of tropical forest were lost per year between 1950 and 1981. In the 1980s, it was estimated that there were only 120 million hectare of tropical forest in Indonesia left16.
Malaysia: Malaysia is divided into two distinct regions, West Malaysia and East Malaysia. In the past, natural forests were extensive in Malaysia. When the Europeans colonized Malaysia in 1500s, forest was not exploited and removed. At that time, Europeans only used the forest for spices, gum Arabic, gutta percha and other minor forest products. It was not until the end of 19th century that exploitation for timber began. Export of timber took place after 1925, which led to uncontrolled logging and heavy exploitation. In 1960s, plans for agricultural expansion again led to deforestation, as lowland forests were cleared for the planting of paddy and rubber18. The rapid clearance of forest led to huge population of mosquitoes, and thousands of workers died of malaria19.
Philippines: The geographical location of Philippines made it a region of vast biological variation, as Philippines is in tropical area and 60% of the land is mountainous20. The country’s forests are habitat for more than 6,000 plant species and numerous bird and animal species, including the endangered Philippines Eagle and the Visayan warty pig21. When the Spanish arrived in the Philippines in the 16th century, it could be inferred that exploitation of forest was relatively low at the time, as colonizers were interested more in gold than land22. At the time, the population in Philippines was also small, and the demand for timber was limited. At the end of 19th century, the US took over Philippines, and enacted the first forest act in 1904. However, after Philippines’s independence in 1946, the need to grow and develop the economy made timber logging inevitable23. The peak period of exploitation of Philippines forest started in 1960s24 - at the time there was around 12 million hectares of forest area, compared with only 5.7 million hectares left as of 201025.
Thailand: Thailand has a climate influenced strongly by the monsoons, which make the country’s forest types different from other countries of Southeast Asia26. In the past, Thai people could exploit forest resources through free-logging, clearing, and trading etc, and the government had no laws to regulate such activities27. Logging for trading began in King Rama IV’s reign in 1842 by English entrepreneurs, and it was not until 1896 that the Forest Act - the first law providing criminal penalty provisions pertaining to forest exploitation - was established. Along with the Forest Act, the Royal Forest Department (RFD) was founded to consolidate the exploitation of forests28. However, there is little adherence to forestry legislation at the ground level in Thailand, as farmers and tribal population showed little respect for the legislation29. Not surprisingly, Thailand government estimates indicate that Thailand’s forest cover declined from 53.3 percent of the total land area in 1961 to 25 percent in 199930. Official figures claim that 115000 square km of forest still remains in the area31.
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